History of english language teaching - Free Essay -

History of english language teaching

TEFL: HISTORY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

Teaching English as a Foreign Language. This term is predominantly used when English is being taught in a country where it isn’t the native language (for example teaching English to Spanish people in Spain).

For various historical and economic reasons, English has become the dominant language of the world in the twenty-first century. English is the language of science, air traffic control, and tourism, the Internet and to a very large extent of trade and export. According to the British Council at least one billion people speak or are trying to speak English at the present time and of those about 300 million people are actively studying the English language.

TEACHING METHODS AND TEACHER & LEARNER ROLES

Method Teacher Roles Learner Roles Situational Language Teaching Context SetterError Corrector ImitatorMemorizer Audio-lingualism Language ModelerDrill Leader Pattern PracticerAccuracy Enthusiast Communicative Language Teaching Needs AnalystTask Designer ImprovisorNegotiator Total Physical Response CommanderAction Monitor Order TakerPerformer Community Language Learning CounselorParaphraser CollaboratorWhole Person The Natural Approach ActorProps User GuesserImmerser Suggestopedia Auto-hypnotistAuthority Figure RelaxerTrue-Believer

History of English language teaching

In the Western world back in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, foreign language learning was associated with the learning of Latin and Greek, both supposed to promote their speakers' intellectuality. At the time, it was of vital importance to focus on grammatical rules, syntactic structures, along with rote memorization of vocabulary and translation of literary texts. There was no provision for the oral use of the languages under study; after all, both Latin and Greek were not being taught for oral communication but for the sake of their speakers' becoming "scholarly?" or creating an illusion of "erudition." Late in the nineteenth century, the Classical Method came to be known as the Grammar Translation Method, which offered very little beyond an insight into the grammatical rules attending the process of translating from the second to the native language.

The Grammar Translation Method The Grammar Translation Method dominated FLT in the 19th century and in some respects continues to be influential in FLT up to this day. Proponents of this method believe that learning a foreign language is achieved through the constant and fast translation of sentences from the target language into the learner’s first language and vice versa. Correct translations of written texts require (a) knowledge of a vast amount of vocabulary, and (b) knowledge of rules of grammar, which allow learners to analyse and understand the construction of target language sentences, thus preventing their misinterpretation. Word by word translations were popular because by them students could demonstrate that they understood the grammatical construction underlying a specific sentence.

It is typical of this approach, therefore, to place emphasis on the rote memory learning of long lists of bilingual ‘vocabulary equations’, and on the learning of explicit rules of grammar, frequently in form of tables for the declension and conjugation of nouns and verbs. In the eyes of proponents of the Grammar Translation Method vocabulary learning required diligence and the analysis of the grammatical construction of sentences required intelligence. Learners who failed to do translations correctly where therefore blamed for being either not intelligent or lazy or both. In any case, errors were to not be tolerated. And because many people feel, up to this day, that learning a foreign language means learning to translate sentences from the mother tongue into the target language and vice versa, this approach to FLT still has its adherents.

The Grammar Translation Method has its historical origins in the teaching of Latin, which was the dominant language in universities, the public services and intellectual life in general from medieval times up to the 19th century. Knowledge of Latin was needed for the study of the bible and for academic purposes like the study of medical books and legal documents. In Latin studies the focus was, therefore, on the study of written texts. Knowledge of Latin distinguished ‘educated people’ from ordinary folks. Study of the canon of classical texts from well-known ancient authors like Ovid and Cicero was considered morally and aesthetically edifying and superior to anything which the study of modern languages could afford. Speaking Latin played a subordinate role because it was a ‘dead language’ and because there were no authentic living people who could serve as a model for its phonetically correct pronunciation. It was not before the year 1886 that linguists like Wilhelm Vietor, Henry Sweet, and Daniel Jones created the International Phonetic Alphabet for the phonetic description of sounds in different languages.

When in the late 19th century, mainly for political, economic, military, and other practical purposes, some people proposed that in public schools the study of modern languages like French and English should be introduced, it stood beyond question that their teaching had to be based on the methods used for the study of Latin. The focus was on the study of written texts, therefore, and the learners' first language was the language used in foreign language classes. Studying a foreign language was considered something like an intellectual exercise, and the analysis of complicated grammatical constructions and the translation of rows of isolated sentences in both directions was the test by which students could be shamed or show their superior cognitive abilities. Failure to produce correct answers was considered a sign of indolence or inferior intellectual qualities and might provoke physical punishment

Grammar Translation Method The grammar - translation method is derived from traditional approaches to the teaching of Latin and Greek in the nineteenth century.

The students are to develop the ability to read prestigious literary texts. They should also learn to read and write the target language accurately.

Its main features are:

· A meticulous analysis of the target written language, especially its grammar
· Grammar rules are presented and studied explicitly
· Vocabulary is learnt from bilingual word lists
· A paramount use of translation exercises
· The mother tongue is used as the medium of instruction
· Hardly any attention is paid to speaking and listening skills
· To develop logical thinking
· to develop intellectual capacities and to have a generally educational and civilising effect
· To develop, at least in the better learners, an ability to read original texts in the languages concerned
· To improve the standard of learners' L1

Nevertheless, this approach to language learning was short-lived and, only a generation later, gave place to the Direct Method, posited by Charles Berlitz. The basic tenet of Berlitz's method was that second language learning is similar to first language learning. In this light, there should be lots of oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translation, and little if any analysis of grammatical rules and syntactic structures

The Direct Method enjoyed great popularity at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth but it was difficult to use, mainly because of the constraints of budget, time, and classroom size. Yet, after a period of decline, this method has been revived, leading to the emergence of the Audiolingual Method.

The outbreak of World War II heightened the need for Americans to become orally proficient in the languages of their allies and enemies alike. To this end, bits and pieces of the Direct Method were appropriated in order to form and support this new method, the "Army Method," which came to be known in the 1950s as the Audiolingual Method.

The Audiolingual Method was based on linguistic and psychological theory and one of its main premises was the scientific descriptive analysis of a wide assortment of languages. On the other hand, conditioning and habit-formation models of learning put forward by behaviouristic phychologists were married with the pattern practices of the Audiolingual Method. The following points sum up the characteristics of the method

The Direct Method The direct method is developed as a reaction against the grammar-translation method.

Its main features are:

Only use the target language in class The learner should be actively involved in using the language in realistic everyday situations Students are encouraged to think in the target language First speaking is taught and then only reading and writing The Audio-lingual method Introduction The audio-lingual method was widely used in the United States and other countries in the 1950's and 1960's. It is still used in some programs today. Approach Theory of language The Structural view of language is the view behind the audio-lingual method. Particular emphasis was laid on mastering the building blocks of language and learning the rules for combining them. Theory of learning · language learning is habit-formation · mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they make bad habits · language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in written form · analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis · the meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context Design Objectives · Accurate pronunciation and grammar · Ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations · Knowledge of sufficient vocabulary to use with grammar patterns. The syllabus Audiolingualism uses a structural syllabus · Types of learning techniques and activities · · Dialogues · Drills Procedure · Students hear a model dialogue · Students repeat each line of the dialogue · Certain key words or phrases may be changed in the dialogue · Key structures from thedialogue serveas the basis for pattern drills of different kinds. The students practice substitutions in the pattern drills But its popularity waned after 1964, partly because of Wilga Rivers's exposure of its shortcomings. It fell short of promoting communicative ability as it paid undue attention to memorisation and drilling, while downgrading the role of context and world knowledge in language learning. After all, it was discovered that language was not acquired through a process of habit formation and errors were not necessarily bad or pernicious. Communicative language teaching Communicative language teaching began in Britain in the 1960s as a replacement to the earlier structural method, called Situational Language Teaching. This was partly in response to Chomsky's criticisms of structural theories of language and partly based on the theories of British functional linguistis, such as Firth and Halliday, as well as American sociolinguists, such as Hymes , Gumperz and Labov and the writings of Austin and Searle on speech acts. Approach Theory of language The functional view of language is the primary one behind the communicative method, as well as Theory of learning Not a great deal has been written about the learning theory behind the communicative approaches, but here are some principlesthat may be inferred · activities that involve real communication promote learning · activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning · language that is meaningful to the learner promotes learning Design Objectives Students will learn to use language as a means of expression · Students will use language as a means of expressing values and judgments · Students will learn to express the functions that best meet their own communication needs. The syllabus Communicative language teaching often uses a functional-notional syllabus. Yalden(1987) has classified a number of communicative syllabus types. Types of learning techniques and activities Communicative language teaching uses almost any activity that engages learners in authentic communication. Littewood, however has distinguished two major activity types: · functional communication activities: ones aimed at developing certain language skillsand functions, but which involve communication, and · social interaction activities, such as conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays Procedure The Natural Approach The Natural Approach was developed by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen, starting in 1977. It came to have a wide influence in language teaching in the United States and around the world. Approach Theory of language The Communicative view of language is the view behind the Natural Approach. Particular emphasis is laid on language as a set of messages that can be understood. Theory of learning The Natural Approach is based on the following tenets: · Language acquisition (an unconscious process developed through using language meaningfully) is different from language learning (consciously learning or discovering rules about a language) and language acquisition is the only way competence in a second language occurs. (The acquisition/learning hypothesis) · Conscious learning operates only as a monitor or editor that checks or repairs the output of what has been acquired. (The monitor hypothesis) · Grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order and it does little good to try to learn them in another order.(The natural order hypothesis). · People acquire language best from messages that are just slightly beyond their current competence. (The input hypothesis) · The learner's emotional state can act as a filter that impedes or blocks input necessary to acquisition. (The affective filter hypothesis) Here are some of the objectives of the Natural Approach · it is designed to help beginner become intermediates · It is designed to depend on learner needs The syllabus The syllabus for the Natural Approach is a communicative syllabus. Types of learning techniques and activities · Comprehensible input is presented in the target language, using technqiues such as TPR, mime and gesture. · Group techniques are similar to Communicative Language Teaching. · Learners start to talk when they are ready. Procedure The Natural Approach adopts techniques and activities from different sources but uses them to provide comprehensible input. Total Physical Response Total Physical Response is a language learning method based on the coordination of speech and action. It was developed by James Asher, a professor of psychology at San Jose State University, California. It is linkedto the trace theory of memory, which holds that the more often or intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory will be. Approach Theory of language Asher does not directly adress his view of languag, but Richards and Rodgers state that the labeling and ordering of classroom activities seem to be building on the structural view of language. Theory of learning Asher's language learning theories seem similar to those of other behavioral psychologists. There are three principles he elaborates; Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect the same naturalistic processes · Listening should develop before speaking · Children respond physically to spoken language, and adult learners learn better if they do that too · Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech devlops naturally and effortlessly out of it. · Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns · Delaying speech reduces stress Objectives Teaching oral proficiency at a beginning level Using comprehension as a means to speaking · Using action-based drills in the imperative form The syllabus TPR uses a sentence-based grammatical syllabus. Activitis where a command is given in the imperative and the students obey the command isthe main activity in TPR. Situational Language Teaching Situational language teaching is a term not commonly used today, but it is an approach developed by British applied linguists in the 1930s to the 1960s, and which had an impact on language courses which survive in some still being used today. Approach Theory of language The Structural view of language is the view behind the Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching. Speech was viewed as the basis of language and structure as being at the heart of speaking ability. This was a view similar to American structuralists, such as Fries, but the notion of the British applied linguists, such as Firth and Halliday, that structures must be presented in situations in which they could be used, gave its distinctiveness to Situational language teaching. Theory of learning The theory of learning underlying Situation Language Teaching is behaviorism, addressing more the processes, than the conditions of learning. It includes the following principles: · Language learning is habit-formation · Mistakes are bad and should be avoided, as they make bad habits · Language skills are learned more effectively if they are presented orally first, then in written form · Analogy is a better foundation for language learning than analysis · The meanings of words can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural context · Design · · Objectives · · a practical command of the four basic skills of a language, through structure · accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar · ability to respond quickly and accurately in speech situations · automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns. Situational Language teaching uses a structural syllabusand a word list · A situational presentation of new sentence patterns · drills to practice the patterns · Procedures move from controlled to freer practice of structures · Procedures move from oral use of sentence patterns to their automatic use in speech, reading and writing Communicative Approach This is an approach to foreign language teaching which emphasizes the learner's ability to use the language appropriately in specific situations. It tries to make the learners 'communicatively competent'. Learners should be able to select a particular kind of language and should know when, where and with whom they should use it. One of the main challenges of the communicative approach is to integrate the functions of a language (information retrieval, problem solving, social exchanges) with the correct use of structures. The question is how to combine communicative fluency with formal accuracy. To answer that question, communicative teachers built on the notional-functional syllabus which organizes teaching units according to the communicative 'notions' a learner requires in order to communicate successfully. Other fields that can relate to the principles of the communicative approach are the cooperative learning approach, the learner-centred approach. The communicative approach was a reaction against the grammar-translation method and the audio-lingual method they did not stress the communicative uses of language. The Silent Way The Silent Way rested on cognitive rather than affective arguments, and was characterised by a problem-solving approach to learning. Gattegno (1972) held that it is in learners' best interests to develop independence and autonomy and cooperate with each other in solving language problems. The teacher is supposed to be silent - hence the name of the method - and must disabuse himself of the tendency to explain everything to them. The Silent Way came in for an onslaught of criticism. More specifically, it was considered very harsh, as the teacher was distant and, in general lines, the classroom environment was not conducive to learning. Suggestopedia Suggestopedia promised great results if we use our brain power and inner capacities. Lozanov (1979) believed that we are capable of learning much more than we think. Drawing upon Soviet psychological research on yoga and extrasensory perception, he came up with a method for learning that used relaxation as a means of retaining new knowledge and material. It stands to reason that music played a pivotal role in his method. Lozanov and his followers tried to present vocabulary, readings, role-plays and drama with classical music in the background and students sitting in comfortable seats. In this way, students became "suggestible." Of course, suggestopedia offered valuable insights into the "superlearning" powers of our brain but it was demolished on several fronts. For instance, what happens if our classrooms are bereft of such amenities as comfortable seats and Compact Disk players? Certainly, this method is insightful and constructive and can be practised from time to time, without necessarily having to adhere to all its premises. A relaxed mind is an open mind and it can help a student to feel more confident and, in a sense, pliable. by tahira_ghazanfar at yahoo dot com

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History of Tourism

Travel And Tourism was dangerous, expensive and time-consuming activity that was rarely undertaken unless for business, adventure, to flee disease or war and a few other reasons, none of which leisure. Early travelers shouldn't be classified as Tourists.

"Travel and Tourism" means included foot, animal or by ship or boat. The simplest being foot, although horseback improved the pace walking did not hinder the distance one could travel. Camels, donkeys bullocks and elephants were also used whilst traveling, when using animals as transport it made the trip both expensive and allowed the traveler to carry more supplies for trade or suchlike. Early sea vessels varied from dug out tree trunks to the complex Roman galleys. According to early Western history, upper classes often traveled around the Mediterranean basin.

During the rule of Alexander the Great, 700,000 tourists visited what is now a part of Turkey. This was considerably helped by the well built and organized roads, whilst on the journey groups had the ability to change a team of horses, stay at rest houses, and refreshments were available along the trip. During this time, the roads were crowded. Alexander the Great traveled to India and found the road systems and facilities well arranged.

"Travel and Tourism" It was during the same period that pleasure travel begun taking place in China and Japan. The Chinese emperor, Wu Di traveled plenty in the 2nd century. His adventures were well described in his writing.

"Travel and tourism" During the reign of Elizabeth the 1st tourism reached a high. Coach travel had become popular because of its style. Young gentlemen who came from wealthy backgrounds undertook the Grand Tour in this era. They would travel to parts of Great Britain, France, and Italy, it was considered crucial for the education of the young men. The tour was used improperly on many occasions, the youngsters would go on major shopping sprees and a lot of the time they would meet local ladies and generally behave badly.

During the 18th Century, the Industrial revolution changed tourism considerably. A great deal of the rural folk joined the urban society, which allowed them more time and money to spend on travel.

"History of travel and tourism" Thomas Cook was the first person around the world to begin chartered travel and open travel agents. His first chartered trip was a rail trip in which he offered two brass bands, a gala, tea and buns, and speeches for the guests. Tourism today has evolved significantly. Means of travel are more extensive, they now include air travel, car, a much improved rail system and sea vessels.

I enjoy "traveling" having done it many times before. I think it is a great way to learn to appreciate your own environment or to find ways to improve it. I would say that today every family would have undertaken some form of travel. It is a great way to see the world and I think it will never stop developing.

by Anonymous Student

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Slavery and the History - Free Essay -

Slavery and the History

The Middle Passage was the most infamous route of the triangular trade. This voyage carried Africans across the Atlantic Ocean. Captains of slave ships were known as either "loose packers" or "tight packers," depending on how many slaves they crammed into the space they had. However, most ships were "tight packers" (especially those in the 18th century); life for the slaves on these ships was extremely uncomfortable. Slaves were taken from the holding forts, shackled together impairs with leg-irons and carried to the ships in the dugout canoes. Once they were aboard, they were branded with red-hot iron, like cattle, to show who owned them and their clothes removed.

Slaves were housed in the ships as if they were cargo. Men were kept in chains while women and children were allowed to go free, they laid on specially built shelves with about 0.5 meters of vertical space. As long as the slaves were in the hold, they had to remain lying on their backs. There were times when the captain of some ships would allow the slaves to be brought up out their dungeon area. However, the men's legs were linked to a chain running down the center of the ship's deck to prevent them from jumping overboard. While on deck a good captain would have the slaves washed down with warm vinegar and scrubbed and some did not bother in rough weather (would not allow the slaves out at all).

These conditions allowed for sickness and disease flourish and the slaves. The heat in the hold could be over 30 degrees and the slave would have no toilet or washing facilities, causing many to die. They were forced in these conditions for 6 weeks to 3 months depending on the length of the voyage. Other causes of death among the slaves were the choice of committing suicide by jumping overboard choosing to die by drowning or shark attack rather than endure what was faced on board. There was also inadequate ventilation causing suffocation and at time there, revolt on the ships, which the captains used, advanced weapons such as pistols and rifles to slaughter numerous of slaves. Nevertheless, the average loss was 1/8 of all slaves it can be estimated that a further 1.5 million Africans were buried in the Atlantic Ocean between Africa and the Americas.

However, it is important to understand why this cruelty occurred. Slavery began in 1440 when Portugal started to trade slaves with West Africa. By the 16th century, Western Europeans developed and organized system of trading slaves. However, the slave trade did not run as smoothly as expected. Slaves began to revolt and tried to flee from hardship and labor. Regardless of their attempts, slavery expanded, leading the "Triangle Trade," between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. This organized system lasted until 1800's, shortly after the War of Independence that was intended to abolish slavery. The law was stalled when the U.S. allowed the slavery to continue until 1800. A federal law, which was passed in 1793, allowed for the Fugitive Slave Act, which continued the slave trade and prohibited the freedom of Africans.

Before the passage began, slavery had already existed in Africa, but it was much different from the one that Europe would create. In Europe, slaves were dehumanized and viewed as property but in Africa humans were still humans. A reason why Africans were enslaved in their own country traced back to their status. If a person had committed a crime, were prisoners of war, or had debt that was unpaid then they were enslaved. Europe and Africa began their ill-fated relationship; the influx of European goods (particularly firearms) slowly disrupted the West African culture. To Europe improved technology brought power and wealth, but to Africa it brought only more efficient means to capture slaves for market. The religious and political power structure of West African states was peculiarly susceptible to corrosive effects of the slave trade. Believing in divine kingship and divided by intense religious loyalties, the forest people of Guinea looked upon one another as contemptible heretics who deserved death or slavery. In addition, since the tribes that captured the most slaves received the most European goods it became a competition in the interior between the Ashanti and Dahomeans, to raise in power as specialist in the art of slavery. The kingdoms eventually pushed toward the sea, extending the zone the terror as their power increased. However, the triumph of the Dahomey had destroyed the orderly fashion of the slave trade. The African that may have been selling slaves on day may be a slave themselves the next. However, the Europeans did not care who was who and how it came about all they wanted was profit, the merchants did not scruple at kidnapping or inciting raids on peaceful villages. The difference is that the European nation captured innocent people for their own purpose. But, unfortunately some of the Africans began to sell themselves. Why, didn't the Europeans enslave their own people, it was free labor. Sugar cane became the number one crop produced for Europe, which increased their growth.

There were a number of factors that contributed to the Atlantic Slave Trade ending (officially in the early 19th century) after it had been going on for over 400 years. One factor was the growing public revulsion against the slave trade, an important person that brought about the change was Olaudah Equiano. He was born in Nigeria (what is present-day Nigeria) and taken to the Americas as a slave. During his life he was able to buy his freedom (which was very rare) and wrote about his experience being captured and sold into slavery. The publishing of his book was read throughout America and Europe in multiple languages and it had a profound effect on public opinion of slave trade.

In addition, between 1801 and 1803, there had been a successful slave revolt in the Caribbean island nation of Haiti, which shook people throughout the Americas to realize that the system of slavery should be changed and overthrown. Under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture, an ex-slave, in 1804, Haiti became the first black republic in the world and the first country in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery.

At last, the Industrial Revolution in Europe and North America, which occurred simultaneously with the Atlantic Slave Trade, was fueling and growing a demand free rather than labor. In the early years of the Industrial Revolution, cheap raw materials (like cotton) produced by slave labor in America was essential, but by the 19th century continued industrial expansion was dependent on a flexible and mobile labor force. However, leaving European and American industrialist who supported slave trade in the 18th century a change of mind, because it was no longer an economic benefit.

In 1807, Britain became the first European nation to ban slavery. However, since Spain and Portugal did not follow the same rule. African slaves continued to be sent to countries in South America until near the end of the 19th century. Britain attempted to stop slave trade by trying to intercept the ships with war ships (off the west coast of Africa). When successfully intercepted the Africans were shipped back to Africa in the areas of Liberia ("Liberty") and Sierra Leone (Freetown) in West Africa, which was established by US and Britain anti-slavers as haven for freed slaves.

But the end still was yet to come, because in spite of the efforts to end slave trade slavery continued to be practiced in the Americas. The British freed slaves in the Caribbean colonies in 1883. Then the French abolished slavery in the American colonies soon afterwards. Slavery was not abolished in the US until 1864. Cuba and Brazil were the last countries in the Americas to abolish the practice of slavery in the late 19th century.

Abolitionist in the north began a movement to end slavery because were beginning to view slavery as an "evil deed." They began an anti slavery movement which also existed in the south, but most southerners regarded slavery as profitable means and over time thought of it as a good thing rather than bad. Slavery soon became a major issue in the US presidential election of 1860. Many democrats in the north were against slavery and those in the south favored it, each wanted to elect it's own president resulting a splitting of party. There were also some republicans that of the expansion of slavery as a bad thing because they considered it as something that would cause tension between the states and colonies. So eventually, Lincoln was elected president in 1860. Southerners began to fear that he would limit slavery or ban it al together so one of the started seceded from the union (12/20/1860). South Carolina was the first of these states and on April 12, 1860 Confederate troops attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina (starting the American Civil War).

Lincoln's main concern at the start of the Civil War was to preserve the union not to abolish slavery. At first he did not want any African American to join the union army in the Civil War because he thought that would cause more states to secede from the union. However, Lincoln decided in March of 1862, to give congress a plan for the freedom of slaves. He signaled the plan and ended slavery in all the federal territories, he began to accept African Americans in the union army. After the bill he signed, he then issued a preliminary order to emancipate free slaves. He wanted everyone to have rights and freedom. The order declared that all slaves in the areas of the states in rebellion against the US be free. On January, 1, 1863, the final order was issued (Emancipation Proclamation). Which strengthen the north's war effort and weakened the south's. After the Civil War was more than 500,000 slaves had fled to freedom behind the northern lines. The emancipation hurt the south by discouraging Britain and France from entering the war. These nations depended on the south to supply them cotton, the confederacy also hoped that they would fight on their side. But since the Emancipation Proclamation made the war a fight against slavery most Britain and French citizens opposed slavery so they gave their support to the union, leading to the end of slavery in the US. The Freedmen's Bureau was established by the congress on March 3 to provide health care, education, and technical assistance to emancipated slaves. However slavery continued in the states that were part of the union forces. Slavery came to an end in 1865 under Andrew Johnson (vice president of Abraham Lincoln) after Lincoln was assassinated (April 15). The Thirteenth Amendment states: Slavery would be outlawed in the United States.

However problems still remained so during July 1867, Frederick Douglass was asked by President Johnson to take charge of the Freedman's Bureau, a position that would have allowed him to oversee all the government programs administering to the needs of southern blacks. Douglass was tempted by the offer, the first major post to be offered to a black man, but he realized that by associating with the Johnson administration, he would be helping the president appear to be the black man's friend. Instead, he refused to serve under a man whose policies he detested. By 1867, Douglass could see that Johnson's days in office were numbered. The president was unable to stop Congress's Reconstruction acts, which divided the South into five military districts and laid out strict guidelines for the readmission of the Confederate states into the Union. The new laws required the southern states to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment and to guarantee blacks the right to vote. The radical Republicans were angered by Johnson's attempts to block the Reconstruction measures, and they instituted impeachment proceedings against him, the first time a president underwent this ordeal. The impeachment measure fell one vote short of the two-thirds majority in the House and Senate needed to remove Johnson from office, but the president exercised little power during the last two years of his term. But, even with the bills that Lincoln passed and the bills there after the struggle remained.

by Anonymous Student

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soccer history - Free Essay -

soccer history

Chuck Heredia 02-28-04 Period 1 The History of soccer The long history of soccer extends almost 150 years. The game began in 1863 in England, when rugby football and association football went on their different ways and the world's first soccer association was created The. Both forms of soccer began with similar structures. Their history shows at least six different styles of the games, all of the forms have something in common. Whether this can be disputable soccer has many different forms of the game. It is a fact remains that playing a ball with our feet is more natural than with the hands or any part of the body. apart from the absolute necessity to use our legs and feet in such a tough bodily dorm for the ball, often without any laws for protection, it was no doubt recognized right at the outset that the art of controlling the ball with the feet was extremely hard and, as such, it required special technique and incredible talent. The very earliest form of the game was an exercise of precisely this skilful technique dating back to the 2nd century B.C. in China. A military manual dating from the period of the Han Dynasty includes among the physical education exercises, the TsuChu". This consisted of kicking a leather ball filled with feathers and hair through an opening, measuring only 30 - 40 cm in width, into a small net fixed onto long bamboo canes - a feat which obviously demanded great skill and excellent technique. A variation of this exercise also existed, where the player was not permitted to aim at his target unimpeded, but had to use his feet, chest, back and shoulders whilst trying to hold the plays of his opponents. Use of the person’s hands was not permitted. The ball handling of todays top players is therefore not quite as new as some people think.

by Anonymous Student

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A Moment In HIstory - Free Essay -

A Moment In HIstory

If I were to change a moment in history what would it be? Well, the most important moment I would change would be is the tragedy in September 11, 2001. That's the day when two planes hit the World Trade Center and when one plane hit the Pentagon. This is one of the most tragic moments in American history if not the most but also in the world history. That day we've lost thousands of innocent lives more than what we have lost in World War II. A lot of peoples bodies or remains where never found because of the crash or to some the attack to the WTC. Almost in all parts of the States there is somebody, a love one, a relative, a friend, or an acquaintance that we know in that building .The whole world

Watched and was surprise to see a very powerful country was terrorized very badly by the terrorists. Therefore, because of this attack it led up to a war between United States of America and Iraq which we believe perpetrated everything that happened.

To this date, we've been continuing to loose a large portion of our military soldiers in Iraq. So if this attack on the World Trade Center and Pentagon never happened, we wouldn't have such a loss of lives from that and the war. Furthermore, when the tragedy happened, it destroyed almost the whole city and the lives of the people over there were never the same again. The World Trade Center is one the most famous landmark in New York City, and is also known all over the world. The rebuilding of these buildings will take a lot of years. Luckily, although the Pentagon was also hit by a plane, not a lot of people died in that building but it surely affected a lot of lives too.

So probably 9/11 would be the most major moment in history that I would have to change because of all the hardships our people and our country has been through and which also cause the loss of many human lives. This is tragedy we would never wish to happen to any country even to our enemies.

by Anonymous Student

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History of Pepsi-Cola and its advertising - Free Essay -

History of Pepsi-Cola and its advertising

History of Pepsi-Cola

Advertising as Weaponry

Pepsi has marked more than the Hundred Years War with no decisive victory in sight. But then, perhaps victory would spoil all the fun -- not to mention the price wars that frequently let thirsty consumers load up at grocery chains for less than 17 cents a can. If it were just a matter of stuffing cola into an endless procession of cans, the days at Purchase and Somers, N.Y. (home of the Pepsi division) would hold no intrigue. (Ellis, 1979).

Slogan Wizardry

For decades Pepsi has defined itself through the wizardry of the slogan, the jingle and the storyboard and all that a succession of four ad agencies has spun from them. One hundred years after New Bern, N.C., druggist Caleb Bradham called it Pepsi-Cola (actually, Caleb Cola would have had a nice ring and spared Mr. Bradham the necessity of buying out an existing trademark, Pep-Kola, for the princely sum of $100), this worldly and sophisticated company still succumbs to the temptation to see itself as the ``feisty newcomer'' struggling in the shadow of tradition and Americana cast by ``the competitor.'' (Martin, 1962)

Selling In Bottles

The demand, it turned out, was already there. The race was how to make enough Pepsi without going broke in the process. Spritzing it out of fountain dispensers didn't begin to do the job. So Mr. Bradham turned to selling it in bottles. Unfortunately, this required bottles, which were only beginning their evolution from hand-blown delicacies to mass-produced containers. It also required bottlers willing to invest capital in Mr. Bradham's beverage. With the fundamentals of manufacturing still untamed, building additional demand through advertising probably was the least of anyone's concerns. (Martin, 1962)

Manufacturing Crisis

Indeed, it was a crisis of manufacturing, not marketing, that would swallow Pepsi up in the first of a series of bankruptcies. Sugar shortages during World War I and a cartel-induced price surge after that war convinced Caleb Bradham to buy up as much sugar as he could before prices got worse.

Unfortunately, prices soon got better, making everything else worse for Mr. Bradham, who found himself buried under a stockpile of overpriced sugar and debt. Facing bankruptcy, he prevailed upon Wall Street investor Roy Megargel to reorganize. But it came to nothing. In 1923, Mr. Bradham sold out for $35,000 to the Craven Holding Co., went back to the drugstore business and died 11 years later. Craven transplanted Pepsi to Richmond, Va.; while Mr. Megargel, now the largest stockholder, sat on the board and watched his company ekes out a modest growth record through the 1920s. It was reorganized again in 1928 as the National Pepsi-Cola Co., just in time for the the Depression and bankruptcy. Exit Roy Megargel, enter Charles Guth, president of the Loft Candy Store chain and a man with a score to settle against Coca-Cola Co., which had refused to supply Loft stores with syrup at a price Mr. Guth considered reasonable. With Pepsi on the block in 1931, he saw a source of supply that would be his to control. So he picked it up for $150,000, as much to avoid dickering with Coke as for any future he might have seen in Pepsi. (Mulchand, 2003)

An Approach to Coke

When a humiliated Charles Guth sent quiet feelers to Coca-Cola about buying out the company, Coke wasn't interested. It preferred to let Pepsi die a natural death, and the quicker the better. The year was 1934. Then, with nothing left to lose, Mr. Guth had a final idea, one shimmering with the glow of common sense. That March, something astonishing began appearing in Baltimore grocery stores -- 12-oz. bottles of Pepsi selling for 5 cents each. Without raising the price, Mr. Guth had taken Pepsi off the gold standard of the soft drink business, the 6-oz. sales unit. In the midst of the Great Depression, he offered customers a bargain. The result was a reversal of fortune worthy of a Frank Capra movie. Sales soared, bottlers materialized and the race was on to meet a suddenly huge demand. Pepsi began operations in Canada, Cuba and England and moved its main offices and bottling plant to Long Island City, N.Y. (Prendergast, 1993)

No Money for Radio

By 1936, Pepsi had a $500,000 ad budget and retained the Brown Agency, a small shop in Manhattan. Pepsi had no money for network radio, which was the glamour end of the ad business. Spending doubled by 1938, and the Pepsi account moved to Metropolitan Advertising in Manhattan. In the midst of the Pepsi renaissance, though, an internecine battle broke out between Mr. Loft and Mr. Guth that would open a new management era for Pepsi. After Mr. Guth stepped down as Loft president in 1935, the company demanded his 91% share of Pepsi on the grounds he had built it with Loft capital. In 1938, after three years of litigation, Mr. Guth was out and Pepsi was a division of Loft. (Earl, 1998)

Ownership Change

In July 1939, Walter Mack, a VP of Phoenix Securities, Philadelphia, which owned 29% of Loft, took over Pepsi. A year later Phoenix sold off the last of its Loft stock, cutting forever the link to Pepsi. In 1939, the cola wars got serious. When producer Billy Rose decided to sell Pepsi in his Aquacade show at the New York World's Fair that summer, Coke got the fair's lawyers to block him, an order Mr. Rose immediately ignored with his usual flair. This brought out police to seize the contraband Pepsi, which in turn drew an injunction from Mr. Rose, one that was upheld a month later in court. A few weeks later, as if to emphasize its victory, Pepsi launched a sky-writing campaign by putting its signature directly over the fair grounds. (A Selection of …..1998)

An Agency Switch

With manufacturing and distribution finally on sound footing, Mr. Mack knew marketing would drive Pepsi's future. He fired Metropolitan Advertising and in August hired the Newell Emmett Co., which 10 years later would become Cunningham & Walsh. In May 1942, Newell Emmett took Pepsi advertising into network radio for the first time, but in a weekly five-minute slot on the second-string NBC Blue Network (soon to become ABC). A second try in February 1946, with a 15-minute Sunday evening commentary program by journalist Quentin Reynolds, also was brief, as was a third network flirtation involving ``Counter-Spy'' in 1949 and 1950. (Hein, 2004)

A Move to Manhattan

In 1948, with sales dropping, Mr. Mack took two steps to separate the old Pepsi from the new. He moved company headquarters across the East River from industrial Long Island City to fashionable Fifth Ave. and 57th St. in Manhattan. And, as CEOs routinely do at such times, he fired his agency. Newell Emmett was out; the Biow Agency was in. Milton Biow had given America ``Call for Philip Morris-s-s'' and ``B-U-L-O-V-A -- Bulova watch time.'' In 1949, with a $3 million budget in hand, he intended to give Pepsi ``Twice as Much for a Nickel, Too.''

In October 1950, with Pepsi sales down $16 million from 1947, Walter Mack resigned at age 54, clearing the way for his heir apparent, Alfred Steele, whom Mr. Mack had recruited from Coca-Cola in 1949. It wasn't the last talent Coke would surrender to Pepsi. In 1951 Biow beckoned three key executives from Coke's long-time agency, D'Arcy Advertising, presumably at the instruction of Mr. Steele, who had been friends with each of them since his Coke days with D'Arcy in 1939. (Ellis, 1979)

A Stylish Image

``More Bounce to the Ounce'' became the Pepsi mantra as Mr. Steele took over, a line that complemented his taste for glamour, not to mention his TV sponsorship of Faye Emerson, whose plunging necklines and décolletage were the talk of the industry. The old ``John Peel'' jingle was phased out, and a stylish Polly Bergen personified Pepsi's modern image as she talked about a ``the light refreshment that refreshed without filling.'' Pepsi's stylish image was further burnished when Alfred Steele married actress Joan Crawford in 1956. ``Reduced calories'' became a Pepsi theme years, bringing with it the whole diet category, as slender women in Dior suits set the new upscale look. Even the Pepsi-Cola logo was lightened from two hyphens to one. (Riley, 1958)

An Angry Breakup

Eight million dollars was an account worth fighting for in 1955, and rumors of a change were in the air after D'Arcy lost Coke to McCann-Erickson in October. John Tiago, speaking for the Biow Agency (by now Biow-Beirn-Tiago), said he knew nothing about a Pepsi agency switch and that in any case he was loyal to BBT. Two weeks later, Pepsi fired BBT and hired Kenyon & Eckhardt. What had apparently piqued Pepsi for several months was the appearance in July of BBT's high-fashion Philip Morris campaign, whose art and type style were too close to Pepsi's for comfort. In Pepsi's view, it was sheer plagiarism, because the company credited Mr. Steele and not BBT with coming up with the high-fashion glamour look. (Martin, 1962)

Closing the Gap

Kenyon & Eckhardt raised the stakes of elegance and good taste still higher. ``Say Pepsi Please'' became the slogan de jour going into 1957, as the Coke-Pepsi sales gap closed from 5 to 1 in 1950 to 2 to 1. A quiet revolution was taking place in Pepsi advertising. In trying to tell a quality story, the advertising emphasis had drifted from product qualities to an association with a quality-conscious lifestyle. The principle was good, and more basic than anyone may have sensed. There was only one problem: For a soft drink, the lifestyle lacked any sense of reality. (Mulchand, 2003)

New Office, New Logo

Then in April 1959, Alfred Steele, the master of it all who made Pepsi the nation's 57th largest advertiser, died at age 57. Mr. Steele's demise signaled big changes just ahead. There would be Pepsi in new pop-top cans, whose pull rings, buyers soon discovered, not only made the old ``church key'' obsolete but made excellent slugs in parking meters (an unintended design benefit later corrected by American Can Co.). Also just ahead: a new non-script logo, new Manhattan offices at 500 Park Ave., new brands like Teem and Patio, the first Diet Pepsi cola. (Riley, 1958)

Donald Kendall’s Rise

Over the next three years, real power shifted to Donald Kendall. After joining Pepsi in 1947 as a syrup salesman, this gregarious salesman-politician and friend-of-U.S. Presidents secured control of the company in 1963 and began the acquisition spree that would turn Pepsi into a multinational conglomerate. First came Tip Corp., maker of Mountain Dew, in September 1964. Then in 1965 came the merger with Frito-Lay. With Frito-Lay came the creation of PepsiCo, parent company of all once and future acquisitions. (A Selection of ….1998)

Zeroing In On the Young

Seeing a young stampede barreling toward the marketplace, Pepsi zeroed in on a population that saw itself as distinct and separate from its parents in a way earlier generations hadn't. Three weeks after John Kennedy was inaugurated as President in 1961, Pepsi set out to take that generation for its own. To the tune of ``Makin' Whoopie,'' singer Joannie Sommers rolled out the message that would steer the Pepsi personality for the rest of the century -- ``for those who think young.'' The phrase became a colloquialism that United Artists even used as the name of a beach-romp film. The intensity of the campaign symbolized a fierce new overall aggressiveness against Coke.

The phrase ``Pepsi Generation'' soon became interchangeable with baby boomer, although it didn't materialize until four years later when BBDO launched the ``Come Alive . . .''You're in the Pepsi Generation'' campaign, also with Ms. Sommers. (A Selection of ….1998)

Using Folk Music

In the hot-blooded '70s the folk sound seemed safer. Pepsi used a different folk style in ``You've Got a Lot to Live, and Pepsi's Got a Lot to Give.'' And as for the pop hits, Pepsi had charted one five years before with its own music for Diet Pepsi, ``Music to Watch Girls By.'' There also was a growing tolerance for diversity as commercials became proudly multi-racial. For the first time viewers saw black and white consumers, not only in the same spot, but actually socializing with one another. (Riley, 1958)

Varying the Message

But BBDO knew this was not a happy land. Wisely Pepsi scratched a mid-'70s campaign on the ``Smilin' Majority'' in the wake of Watergate in favor ``Join the Pepsi People, Feelin' Free.'' A sanitized counter-culture sensibility pervaded even the most traditional Main Street visuals of swimming holes and farm life, as lines such as ``you be you, I'll be me'' blended a non-judgmental open-mindedness with red, white and blue patriotism. (A Selection of ….1998)

Music as A Road Map

Music has become the road map to the next generation, wherever it might be hiding. By the mid-'80s, the Michael Jackson tour sponsorships made Pepsi and BBDO show-business players in ways not seen since the '30s and '40s, when great advertisers and agencies produced packaged music stars like Bing Crosby (Kraft) and Benny Goodman (Camels) for network radio.

Company-Agency Synergy

Under a succession of smart company men a client-agency relationship of considerable dimension has developed. Each has complemented the other's weaknesses with a countervailing strength. They have much to celebrate.

by Anonymous Student

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